Further, we show that the memory-like phenotype of mo-DCs, induced by priming stimuli, is important for subsequent T helper (Th) cell differentiation pathways and might determine the inflammatory nature of Th cells. A similar pattern was found in conventional and gut-like (retinoic acid exposed) DCs, although retinoic acid hampered TNFα and IL-6 production and enrichment of histone modifications in L. reuteri-secretome resembles a tolerant state upon secondary exposure. Here, we show that priming of human monocytes with a secretome from the gut probiotic bacterium Limosilactobacillus ( L.) reuteri induces a mixed secondary response phenotype in monocyte-derived dendritic cells (mo-DCs), with a strong IL-6 and IL-1β response but low TNFα, IL-23 and IL-27 secretion. A number of microbial agents have been found to induce enhanced or diminished recall responses in innate cells, however, studies investigating the ability of probiotic bacteria to trigger such effects are lacking. Memory-like responses in innate immune cells confer nonspecific protection against secondary exposures.
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